I : Introduction

Islam originated in Arabia in 610 when the angel Gabriel appeared to Mohammed (PBUH) and revealed the message of Allah, which was collected into the Qur'an. Muslims accepted five basic truths or duties, including belief in one God, prayer five times a day, fasting during Ramadan, giving alms, and making a pilgrimage to Mecca. The conversion of tribes to Islam led to rapid conquests by Islamic armies in 661, reaching Iran, Iraq, Israel, Syria, Egypt, and Spain in 771. Islamic settlers remained in Spain until 1492, and their armies conquered Constantinople in 1453. Islamic dynasties made contact with China and India through trade, and their dominance brought cultural and societal changes. Islamic rule often accommodated conquered populations, fostering a multicultural society. The era saw significant contributions in the arts and sciences from scholars of Islamic, Jewish, and Christian traditions.

 

IN POINTS:

• Early Christians and followers of Islam developed different architectural forms for their respective religions.

• Islam originated in Arabia, with the angel Gabriel appearing to Mohammed(PBUH) and revealing Allah's message.

• The revelations were collected in the Qur'an, which expressed the message of Islam.

• Muslims accepted five basic truths or duties, including belief in one God, prayer, fasting during Ramadan, giving alms, and making a pilgrimage to Mecca.

• Islamic armies rapidly conquered territories, including Iran, Iraq, Israel, Syria, Egypt, and Spain.

• Islamic settlers remained in Spain until 1492, while their armies conquered Constantinople in 1453.

• Islamic dynasties had trade connections with China and India, influencing the spread of their religion.

• Islamic customs and the Arabic language replaced Roman practices in the conquered lands.

• Islamic rule often accommodated conquered populations, creating a multicultural society.

• Scholars from Islamic, Jewish, and Christian traditions made significant contributions to the arts and sciences during this era.

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II : Early Shrines And palaces

The early Islamic Arabs assimilated techniques and forms from the civilizations they encountered for their earliest buildings. The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, influenced by Syrian and Christian architecture, served as a prominent shrine. It was built around a rock with a small cave, following a central plan similar to Christian churches. The dome, constructed of wood, featured plastered inner ribs adorned with painted and gilded designs. The exterior was sheathed with boards and finished with lead and gold leaf. The Dome of the Rock symbolized the ascendancy of Islam and the Umayyad Dynasty. Additionally, the Ka'ba in Mecca, draped in cloth and containing the Black Stone, was rebuilt using a similar central shrine design for Islamic pilgrimage. Desert palaces were also constructed, such as Qusayr Amra, which featured vaulted construction and frescoes. The Mshatta Palace combined Roman fort designs with Sassanian influences and featured carved reliefs and ornamental surface ornamentation.

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IN POINTS :

• Early Islamic Arabs incorporated techniques and forms from other civilizations in their early buildings.

• The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, influenced by Syrian and Christian architecture, was a prominent shrine built around a rock.

• The dome had wooden ribs, plastered inner surfaces, and a sheathed exterior finished with lead and gold leaf.

• The Dome of the Rock symbolized the rise of Islam and the Umayyad Dynasty.

• The Ka'ba in Mecca was rebuilt as a central shrine for Islamic pilgrimage.

• Desert palaces like Qusayr Amra featured vaulted construction and frescoes.

• The Mshatta Palace combined Roman fort designs with Sassanian influences and had carved reliefs and ornamental surface ornamentation.

 

 

III : Development Of The Mosque

The mosque, the primary place of worship in Islam, developed from various sources, including the House of the Prophet in Medina, Christian churches, and Persian audience halls. The early mosques were based on a square enclosure with a central court, initially used for domestic purposes but later adapted for sermons and prayers. As Islam expanded into established cities, existing spaces like Christian churches were converted into mosques by removing Christian imagery and reorienting the prayer hall towards Mecca. The size of the mosque varied based on the community's size, and communal Friday prayers took place in the main mosque. The Great Mosque at Damascus, the oldest surviving mosque, exemplifies the development of mosque architecture. It was built on the site of a Roman temple and a Christian church, featuring a rectangular outline, minarets, an open courtyard, a covered prayer hall, niches indicating the direction of Mecca, and ornamental features like mosaics and calligraphy. The mosque's design influenced subsequent mosque constructions. Islamic ornamentation relied on geometric abstractions and Arabic calligraphy, avoiding the depiction of animate beings in places of worship.

 

IN POINTS :

• The mosque evolved from various sources, including the House of the Prophet and Christian churches.

• Early mosques used a square enclosure with a central court for domestic purposes and later for prayers and sermons.

• Existing spaces like Christian churches were converted into mosques by removing Christian imagery and reorienting the prayer hall.

• The size of the mosque varied based on the community's size, and Friday prayers were held in the main mosque.

• The Great Mosque at Damascus, the oldest surviving mosque, had a rectangular outline, minarets, an open courtyard, and a covered prayer hall.

• Niches in the prayer hall indicated the direction of Mecca, and mosaics and calligraphy adorned the mosque.

• Islamic ornamentation relied on geometric abstractions and Arabic calligraphy, avoiding depictions of animate beings in places of worship.

• The design of the Great Mosque at Damascus influenced later mosque constructions.

 

IV : Regional Variation In Mosque Designes 

As Islam spread to different regions, mosque designs were adapted to suit local building traditions and conditions. Scholars have categorized mosque designs into five main groupings based on their architectural features and regional variations. These groupings include:

- columned halls with small domes (found in Arabia, Africa, and Spain),

- large central spaces with large domes or pyramidal roofs (common in Anatolia and Indonesia), 

- rectangular courts with roofed or vaulted spaces open to the central courtyard (found in Iran and Central Asia),

- triple-domed mosques with open courtyards (developed in India),

- mosques composed of pavilions set within a walled garden (typical of China).

These different designs showcase the diversity in mosque architecture across geographical areas.

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IN POINTS :

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• Mosque designs were adjusted to suit local building traditions and conditions as Islam spread.

• Scholars have categorized mosque designs into five main groupings based on architectural features and regional variations.

• Columned halls with small domes are found in Arabia, Africa, and Spain.

• Large central spaces with large domes or pyramidal roofs are common in Anatolia and Indonesia.

• Rectangular courts with roofed or vaulted spaces open to the central courtyard are found in Iran and Central Asia.

• Triple-domed mosques with open courtyards developed in India.

• Mosques composed of pavilions set within a walled garden are typical of China.

• These different mosque designs showcase the diversity in architecture across geographical areas.

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V : Columnar Hall Designs 

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The Great Mosque in Córdoba, Spain, which began construction around 785, follows the pattern of the Great Mosque of Damascus. Founded by Abd al-Rahman I, the mosque had a nearly square plan, with half of it comprising the sahn (courtyard) and the other half the haram (sanctuary). The haram contained ten rows of eleven columns, creating an eleven-aisled sanctuary. Superimposed arches connected the columns, with a lower horseshoe-shaped arch and an upper semi-circular arch. The arches were polychrome, composed of white stone and red brick voussoirs. The salvaged Roman columns had various designs and were topped with Corinthian capitals. The mosque underwent several expansions, adding new bays and a richly ornamented mihrab niche. The final extension included additional aisles and an enlarged courtyard, making it the largest mosque in Spain. In the sixteenth century, the mosque was converted into a Christian place of worship with the insertion of the Córdoba Cathedral, disrupting the original colonnaded space but preserving elements of the Islamic architecture.

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IN POINTS :

• The Great Mosque in Córdoba, Spain, started construction around 785.

• It followed the pattern of the Great Mosque of Damascus and was founded by Abd al-Rahman I.

• The mosque had a nearly square plan, with a sahn (courtyard) and haram (sanctuary).

• The haram had ten rows of eleven columns, creating an eleven-aisled sanctuary.

• Superimposed arches connected the columns, with lower horseshoe-shaped arches and upper semi-circular arches.

• The arches were polychrome, composed of white stone and red brick voussoirs.

• Roman columns with various designs and Corinthian capitals were used.

• The mosque underwent several expansions, adding new bays and a richly ornamented mihrab niche.

• The final expansion made it the largest mosque in Spain.

• In the sixteenth century, it was converted into a Christian place of worship with the insertion of the Córdoba Cathedral, preserving elements of the original Islamic architecture.

 

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VI : Iwan Designs

In Central Asian lands that are now part of Iran, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, and Afghanistan, mosque designs evolved from multi-columned halls, influenced by Persian audience halls. The Friday mosque in Isfahan is one of the earliest mosques with reliable archaeological information. Initially, it had a rectangular multi-columned hall, which was later transformed into a sahn and haram surrounded by arcades. In the 11th century, domed chambers, known as maqsuras, were added. The mosque was further modified to include four iwans (vaulted halls) set in the center of each side of the courtyard. The reason for adopting this design from Parthian palaces is unclear, but it provided an opportunity for geometric ornamentation using glazed tiles in various colors and muqarnas vaults. Isfahan's Friday mosque is known for its intricate brickwork patterns in the domes. Another notable mosque in Isfahan is the Masjid-i-Shah, built in the 17th century, featuring a four-iwan courtyard and symmetrical design. The mosque includes a domed prayer hall, winter mosque rooms covered by smaller domes, and religious schools (madrasas) that continue the tradition of combining education with worship.

 

IN POINTS :

 

• Mosque designs in Central Asia were influenced by multi-columned halls and Persian audience halls.

• The Friday mosque in Isfahan, Iran, had a rectangular multi-columned hall, which later became a sahn and haram surrounded by arcades.

• Maqsuras, domed chambers, were added to the mosque.

• The mosque was modified to include four iwans set in the center of each side of the courtyard.

• Glazed tiles and muqarnas vaults were used for geometric ornamentation in Isfahan's mosque.

• The mosque is renowned for its intricate brickwork patterns in the domes.

• The Masjid-i-Shah in Isfahan, built in the 17th century, has a four-iwan courtyard and symmetrical design.

• It includes a domed prayer hall, winter mosque rooms covered by smaller domes, and religious schools (madrasas).

• Isfahan's mosques demonstrate a combination of architectural beauty and educational aspects in Islamic worship.

 

VI: Courtyard Designs

In India, Islam encountered Hindu and Buddhist temples with intricately sculpted figures, which contrasted with the Islamic concept of open courtyards and avoidance of representational art. Initially, mosques in India followed multi-columned hall designs. However, during the Mughal Dynasty, a distinct Indo-Islamic style emerged, influenced by craftsmen from Central Asia. Fatehpur Sikri, built by Emperor Akbar, showcases the Indo-Islamic style with its grand Friday mosque. The mosque incorporates elements from Persian, Hindu, and Buddhist architecture, including a courtyard with a marble tomb. In Delhi, the tomb of Akbar's father, Humayun, further demonstrates the fusion of Persian and Indian architectural elements. The Taj Mahal, built by Shah Jahan, is a renowned example of Mughal architecture, featuring bilateral symmetry, cusped arches, and white marble finishes. The tomb, complemented by a mosque and guest house, is set in a symmetrical garden and is a testament to love and craftsmanship.

IN POINTS :

• In India, Islam encountered Hindu and Buddhist temples with intricately sculpted figures.

• Islamic mosques in India initially followed multi-columned hall designs.

• The Mughal Dynasty introduced a distinct Indo-Islamic style, influenced by craftsmen from Central Asia.

• Fatehpur Sikri (a city it was once the capital of the mughal empire from 1571-1584), built by Emperor Akbar, showcases the Indo-Islamic style with its grand Friday mosque.

• The Friday mosque in Fatehpur Sikri features an immense courtyard and incorporates elements from Persian, Hindu, and Buddhist architecture.

• The tomb of Akbar's father, Humayun, in Delhi, combines domed tomb architecture with the Persian garden concept.

• The Taj Mahal, built by Shah Jahan, is a renowned example of Mughal architecture in India.

• The Taj Mahal features bilateral symmetry, cusped arches, and white marble finishes.

• The Taj Mahal includes a mosque and a guest house as complementary structures.

• The Taj Mahal is set in a symmetrical garden with canals, and it is known for its fine craftsmanship and beautiful design.

• The Taj Mahal was built as a tomb for Shah Jahan's beloved wife, Mumtaz Mahal, and is a symbol of love and devotion.

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VI : Pavilion Design

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The introduction of Islam to China brought about a fusion of Islamic and traditional Chinese architectural styles. The Great Mosque in Xian, built in 1392, is a notable example of this integration. It consists of wooden pavilions and courtyards aligned along an east-to-west axis. Three major modifications were made to accommodate Islamic practices:

• adjusting the orientation to face west towards Mecca.

• incorporating minarets resembling moon-viewing pavilions.

• and using Chinese gable roofs to cover the mihrab recess.

The mosque showcases traditional Chinese building techniques, making it less visibly distinct as an Islamic structure from the outside.

 

IN POINTS :

• Islam in China led to a blend of Islamic and traditional Chinese architectural styles.

• The Great Mosque in Xian, built in 1392, exemplifies this fusion.

• The mosque features wooden pavilions and courtyards aligned along an east-to-west axis.

• Modifications were made to accommodate Islamic practices, including adjusting the orientation to face Mecca and incorporating minarets resembling moon-viewing pavilions.

• Traditional Chinese gable roofs were used to cover the mihrab recess.

• The mosque showcases traditional Chinese building techniques.

• From the outside, it may not appear distinct as an Islamic structure due to its adherence to Chinese architectural traditions.

 

VII:Domed Prayer Hall Designs

The spread of Islam in Anatolia led to the rise of the Ottoman Empire and the conversion of prominent Byzantine churches into mosques. Ottoman architects, inspired by the Byzantine churches, created remarkable mosques that rivaled the architectural excellence of Byzantium. Koca Sinan, a renowned Ottoman architect, played a significant role in this architectural transformation. His designs, often commissioned by generous sultans, showcased a harmonious blend of Islamic and Byzantine elements. Two notable examples of Sinan's work are the Shehzade mosque complex and the Süleyman the Magnificent mosque complex. These complexes incorporated multiple structures to cater to various needs, including madrasas, hospices, schools, and caravanserais. Sinan's architectural style emphasized balanced volumes, symmetrical geometry, and the use of minarets to create visually stunning compositions. His mastery is evident in the domed prayer halls of these mosques, such as the Süleymaniye Mosque and the Selimiye Mosque. These prayer halls featured large central domes and supporting piers, with buttressing elements hidden within the walls. The Selimiye Mosque, in particular, boasted a dome wider and taller than the renowned Hagia Sophia. The mosques designed by Sinan stand as enduring symbols of Ottoman architectural brilliance.

 

IN POINTS :

• The spread of Islam in Anatolia led to the rise of the Ottoman Empire and the conversion of Byzantine churches into mosques.

• Ottoman architects, inspired by Byzantine churches, created mosques with remarkable architectural details.

• Koca Sinan, a renowned Ottoman architect, played a significant role in this architectural transformation.

• Sinan's designs showcased a harmonious blend of Islamic and Byzantine elements.

• He created mosque complexes that included various structures to serve different purposes.

• The complexes incorporated madrasas, hospices, schools, and caravanserais.

• Sinan's architectural style emphasized balanced volumes, symmetrical geometry, and the use of minarets.

• The domed prayer halls in his mosques featured large central domes and hidden buttressing elements.

• The Süleymaniye Mosque and the Selimiye Mosque were notable examples of Sinan's mastery.

• The Selimiye Mosque boasted a dome wider and taller than the renowned Hagia Sophia.

• The mosques designed by Sinan are enduring symbols of Ottoman architectural brilliance.

 

VIII : Houses,Palaces, And Urban Patterns

Islamic houses and urban patterns exhibit considerable diversity across the Islamic world due to variations in climate, traditional house forms, and construction materials. However, certain principles derived from the Qur'an and Islamic traditions shape these architectural elements. Islamic houses prioritize privacy, often featuring plain exterior walls facing the street. In hot, arid climates, houses are designed around courtyards that provide privacy and modify the microclimate. Windows and doorways are strategically positioned to prevent visibility into neighboring houses and maintain privacy. Women and children are segregated from men and visitors, resulting in separate living areas within the house.

 

Islamic cities have a distinctive urban layout, with a Friday mosque, a governor's residence, and a bazaar or market as essential features. Traditional settlements include communal facilities such as fountains, cafés, caravanserais, public baths, and madrasas. Residential quarters are organized based on trade, religious, or ethnic affiliations, with shared amenities such as mosques, fountains, public baths, communal ovens, and shops. Traditional Islamic city plans feature limited through roads, numerous secondary streets, and cul-de-sacs(The cul-de-sac is a suburban trap. It's virtually useless as a road, doesn't support public transport, cycling, or walking, and doesn't work well as a play or gathering place. Its literal translation from French is “bottom of a sack” Source:click here), creating a maze-like layout.

 

Isfahan exemplifies Islamic city planning with its combination of traditional street networks and formal rectangular squares, such as the Maidan-i-Shah. The Alhambra Palace in Granada showcases exquisite architectural details and decorative elements. Its palace chambers, such as the Court of Myrtle Trees and the Court of Lions, feature open rectangular courts, arcades, intricate vaulting, and decorative surfaces. The Alhambra's interiors are richly adorned with marbles, ceramic tiles, carved wood, and stucco screens, creating a dreamlike atmosphere.

Islamic architecture greatly influenced Western architecture, with elements like polychromy, pointed arches, and interlacing ribbed domes originating from mosque designs. The integration of landscape and architecture seen in palaces like the Alhambra set a standard unmatched in northern Europe.

IN POINTS :

• Islamic houses and urban patterns exhibit diversity across the Islamic world due to climate, house forms, and construction materials.

• Islamic houses prioritize privacy and often present plain exteriors facing the street.

• Courtyards are common in hot, arid climates and provide privacy and favorable microclimate conditions.

• Strategic placement of windows and doorways maintains privacy and prevents visibility into neighboring houses.

• Segregation of women and children from men and visitors is observed, resulting in separate living areas within the house.

• Islamic cities typically have a Friday mosque, a governor's residence, and a bazaar or market as essential features.

• Residential quarters in traditional Islamic settlements are organized based on trade or religious and ethnic affiliations.

• Shared amenities in residential quarters include mosques, fountains, public baths, communal ovens, and shops.

• Traditional Islamic city plans feature limited roads, secondary streets, and cul-de-sacs, resembling a maze-like layout.

• Isfahan exemplifies Islamic city planning, combining traditional street networks with formal rectangular squares like the Maidan-i-Shah.

• The Alhambra Palace in Granada showcases intricate architectural details and decorative elements.

• The palace chambers in the Alhambra, such as the Court of Myrtle Trees and the Court of Lions, feature open rectangular courts, arcades, and ornate vaulting.

• The Alhambra's interiors are adorned with marble, ceramic tiles, carved wood, and stucco screens, creating a dreamlike atmosphere.

• Islamic architecture influenced Western architecture, with elements like polychromy, pointed arches, and interlacing ribbed domes originating from mosque designs.

• Palaces like the Alhambra set a standard of integration between landscape and architecture unmatched in northern Europe.

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