I : Introduction

After the decline of the Roman Empire, Western Europe entered a period of decline as nomadic tribes from Central Asia overran Roman frontiers and occupied Rome by 476. These tribes eventually settled down, converted to Christianity, and attempted to continue Roman governmental traditions. The period from 400 to 1400 is known as the Medieval period or the Middle Ages. Roman culture, based on city life and a strong central government, was replaced by small agricultural units organized by local strongmen. This arrangement developed into the feudal system

 

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IN POINTS:

• Western Europe entered a period of decline after the fall of the Roman Empire.

• Nomadic tribes from Central Asia overran Roman frontiers and occupied Rome by 476.

• These tribes eventually settled down and attempted to continue Roman governmental traditions.

• The period from 400 to 1400 is known as the Medieval period or the Middle Ages.

• Roman culture was replaced by small agricultural units organized by local strongmen.

• This arrangement developed into the feudal system.

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II : Carolingian Architecture

Very little architecture in western Europe has survived from the period 400-800 due to the chaos created by barbarian invasions. Charlemagne, the grandson of Charles Martel, emerged as a dominant leader during his reign from 768-814, unifying a large portion of present-day France, the Low Countries, and Germany. On Christmas Day in the year 800, Pope Leo III crowned him Holy Roman Emperor, making him the spiritual heir of the Roman empire.

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IN POINTS :

• Very little architecture in Western Europe has survived from the period 400-800.

• Charlemagne emerged as a dominant leader during his reign from 768-814.

• He unified a large portion of present-day France, the Low Countries, and Germany.

• On Christmas Day in the year 800, Pope Leo III crowned him Holy Roman Emperor.

• Charlemagne became the spiritual heir of the Roman Empire.

 

III : The Revival Of Masonry Construction

 Charlemagne aspired to a renaissance of Roman achievements and encouraged architecture by donating lands and money for the construction of churches and monasteries. The resulting buildings, termed Carolingian, are in many cases based on Early Christian buildings. Charlemagne effectively revived monumental masonry construction in a region that had not been built in this way for about half a millennium. The Palatine Chapel at Aachen was designed by Odo of Metz and probably built by Lombard masons using stone salvaged from nearby Roman structures. The addition of a westward to churches is one of the Carolingian contributions to the Western architectural tradition.

 

IN POINTS :

• Charlemagne aspired to a renaissance of Roman achievements.

• He encouraged architecture by donating lands and money for the construction of churches and monasteries.

• The resulting buildings, termed Carolingian, are in many cases based on Early Christian buildings.

• Charlemagne effectively revived monumental masonry construction in a region that had not been built in this way for about half a millennium.

• The Palatine Chapel at Aachen was designed by Odo of Metz and probably built by Lombard masons using stone salvaged from nearby Roman structures.

• The addition of a westward to churches is one of the Carolingian contributions to the Western architectural tradition.

 

IV: Monasteries

After Charlemagne’s death, governmental power in Western Europe gradually reverted to the hands of local or regional lords. The Church stood as the singular unifying social institution that surpassed regional divisions, effectively structuring medieval Europe through the establishment of ecclesiastical dioceses. Complementary to the town-based diocesan units were the largely rural monasteries that grew and flourished widely during the medieval period. Charlemagne encouraged their establishment of practical policy and spiritual and educational contributions. Monasticism had an extensive impact on the architecture of the medieval period. Medieval society was divided broadly into three classes:

1. those who fought.

2. those who labored.

3. those who prayed.

Charlemagne required that all monasteries within his realm should follow the Rule of St. Benedict.

 

 

IN POINTS :

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• After Charlemagne’s death, governmental power in Western Europe gradually reverted to the hands of local or regional lords.

• The Church was the one cohesive social institution that tried to unify the regional groups.

• Complementary to the town-based diocesan units were the largely rural monasteries.

• Charlemagne encouraged their establishment of practical policy and spiritual and educational contributions.

• Monasticism had an extensive impact on the architecture of the medieval period.

• Medieval society was divided broadly into three classes: those who fought, those who labored, and those who prayed.

• Charlemagne required that all monasteries within his realm should follow the Rule of St. Benedict.

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V : Anglo-Saxon And Vikings Architecture

English Churches

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In the 7th century, the Pope sent a Roman monk named Augustine to revitalize Christianity in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. Augustine encouraged the construction of churches, most of which were built in wood. The only surviving wooden Anglo-Saxon structure is the nave of St. Andrew’s Church at Greensted, built around 1000. Anglo-Saxon parish churches were generally small and simple, with a nave and chancel. The major entrance was usually on the south side and towers were built to hold bells. The best-known example of an Anglo-Saxon masonry building is the tower of All Saints Church at Earl’s Barton, Northamptonshire, which dates from around 1000.

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Norwegian Stave Churches

Anglo-Saxon England was repeatedly raided by Vikings from Scandinavia, whose artistic legacy is best seen in smaller objects adorned with intricate interlaced ornament based on stylized plant and animal forms. Scandinavia remained outside the Christian sphere until the middle of the 11th century, when Anglo-Saxon missionaries succeeded in converting the pagans of Norway. The missionaries brought knowledge of Anglo-Saxon church architecture with them, which combined with native building traditions to create the unique stave church. The oldest extant stave church is at Urnes, Norway, dating from about 1125-40. Stave churches are constructed using upright poles (staves) supported on crossed horizontal sills raised off the ground by large flat stones. Urnes and other stave churches are very dark inside, with light and ventilation provided by small circular openings (wind-eyes) located high in the walls. Urnes also possesses a remarkable carved portal, probably belonging to a previous church built on the same site around 1015.

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IN POINTS :

 

English Churches

• In the 7th century, the Pope sent a Roman monk named Augustine to revitalize Christianity in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms.

• Augustine encouraged the construction of churches, most of which were built of wood.

• The only surviving wooden Anglo-Saxon structure is the nave of St. Andrew’s Church at Greensted, built around 1000.

• Anglo-Saxon parish churches were generally small and simple, with a nave and chancel.

• The major entrance was usually on the south side and towers were built to hold bells.

• The best-known example of an Anglo-Saxon masonry building is the tower of All Saints Church at Earl’s Barton, Northamptonshire, which dates from around 1000.

 

Norwegian Stave Churches

• Anglo-Saxon England was repeatedly raided by Vikings from Scandinavia.

• The artistic legacy of the Vikings is best seen in smaller objects adorned with intricate interlaced ornament based on stylized plant and animal forms.

• Scandinavia remained outside the Christian sphere until the middle of the 11th century when Anglo-Saxon missionaries succeeded in converting the pagans of Norway.

• The missionaries brought knowledge of Anglo-Saxon church architecture with them, which combined with native building traditions to create the unique stave church.

• The oldest extant stave church is at Urnes, Norway, dating from about 1125-40.

• Stave churches are constructed using upright poles (staves) supported on crossed horizontal sills raised off the ground by large flat stones.

• Urnes and other stave churches are very dark inside, with light and ventilation provided by small circular openings (wind-eyes) located high in the walls.

• Urnes also possesses a remarkable carved portal, probably belonging to a previous church built on the same site around 1015.

 

VI : Early Romansque Architecture

The monastery of St. Martin at Canigou built between 1001-26, survives as an example of early Romanesque architecture. Its patron, the Count of Cerdagne, endowed the monastery on a rocky outcrop in the Pyrenees to expiate his sins. The church is a basilica without transepts, with semicircular apses terminating the aisles and nave. The barrel vaults rest on ten supports and solid exterior walls. The only natural light comes from small windows at the east and west ends, resulting in a very dark interior.

The entire monastery forms a harmonious composition, with a square-plan tower abutting the side of the church and the cloister and its related buildings forming an irregular quadrangle on the limited building site. St. Martin at Canigou exemplifies the early Romanesque style, which flourished from around 1000 to 1250 and is characterized by massive and heavy buildings that rely on the mass of the continuous wall to sustain the weight of the vaulting overhead.

 

IN POINTS :

 

• The monastery of St. Martin at Canigou, built between 1001-26, survives as an example of early Romanesque architecture.

• Its patron, the Count of Cerdagne, endowed the monastery on a rocky outcrop in the Pyrenees to expiate his sins.

• The church is a basilica without transepts, with semicircular apses terminating the aisles and nave.

• The barrel vaults rest on ten supports and the solid exterior walls.

• The only natural light comes from small windows at the east and west ends, resulting in a very dark interior.

• The entire monastery forms a harmonious composition, with a square-plan tower abutting the side of the church and the cloister and its related buildings forming an irregular quadrangle on the limited building site.

• St. Martin at Canigou exemplifies the early Romanesque style, which flourished from around 1000 to 1250 and is characterized by massive and heavy buildings that rely on the mass of the continuous wall to sustain the weight of the vaulting overhead.

 

VII: Romanesque Architecture Of The Holy Roman Empire

The Romanesque architecture of the Holy Roman Empire was heavily influenced by different regional styles. The Ottonian architecture, characterized by structures like the church of St. Michael at Hildesheim and the imperial cathedral at Speyer, carried on Carolingian traditions.

The southern regions of the Empire, particularly in Italy, showcased their own versions of Romanesque architecture, strongly influenced by the classical heritage of Rome. Examples included the church of S. Miniato al Monte in Florence and the freestanding cathedral at Pisa. In the northern Italian region of Lombardy, the abbey church of S. Ambrogio in Milan stood as an outstanding Romanesque building

IN POINTS :

• The Ottonian architecture in the middle portion of the Holy Roman Empire, under the rule of the House of Saxony, reflected an extension of Carolingian traditions.

• St. Michael's church at Hildesheim, an exemplary Ottonian church, featured a double-ended basilica with entrances along the side aisles, reminiscent of original Roman basilicas. Polychrome arches, carved column capitals, and a painted wooden ceiling adorned the interior.

• The imperial cathedral at Speyer, a massive construction, was built over several campaigns and featured groin vaults, reaching heights unmatched in the Romanesque period. Lombard's influences were visible in certain architectural elements.

• In the southern regions of the Holy Roman Empire, particularly in Italy, Romanesque architecture was heavily influenced by the classical heritage of Rome. The church of S. Miniato al Monte in Florence followed the Early Christian basilica form.

• The freestanding cathedral at Pisa showcased a cruciform basilica plan with double aisles and galleries. Byzantine influences were evident in the central dome, while the exterior was adorned with marble arcades.

• In Lombardy, the abbey church of S. Ambrogio in Milan retained Early Christian practices and featured an arcaded atrium, groin-vaulted aisles with semicircular chapels, and galleries supporting the nave vaults.

VIII: Pilgrimage Roads

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During the medieval period, pilgrimage became an essential religious practice, allowing people to seek forgiveness, healing, or salvation by visiting shrines containing saints' relics. While Rome and Jerusalem were prominent pilgrimage centers, the shrine of St. James at Compostela in Spain gained popularity around 900 AD. To accommodate the growing number of pilgrims, churches along the pilgrimage roads were modified with features like ambulatories and radiating chapels. Notable examples include St. Martin at Tours, St. Sernin at Toulouse, St. Foy at Conques, and St. James at Compostela. These churches displayed similar plans and architectural elements, showcasing the transmission of artistic ideas along the pilgrimage routes.

 

IN POINTS :

• The pilgrimage was a significant religious practice in the medieval period, attracting people seeking redemption, healing, and salvation through visits to shrines with saint relics.

• While Rome and Jerusalem were popular pilgrimage centers, the shrine of St. James at Compostela in northwestern Spain emerged as a rival center around 900 AD.

• A network of roads and hospices was developed to support the increasing number of pilgrims traveling to Compostela.

• Monasteries along the pilgrimage roads modified their church plans to include ambulatories, like St. Philibert at Tournus, providing continuous passageways and radiating chapels for the pilgrims.

• Churches constructed along the pilgrimage routes displayed similar plans and architectural details, indicating the transmission of artistic ideas. Examples include St. Martin at Tours, St. Sernin at Toulouse, St. Foy at Conques, and St. James at Compostela.

• The church of St. Sernin at Toulouse, with paired aisles, radiating chapels, and second-floor galleries, exemplifies the Romanesque style, with its exterior composed of red brick trimmed with stone.

• St. Foy at Conques featured a similar structural scheme to St. Sernin, with a magnificent sculpture of the Last Judgment on its tympanum, serving a didactic purpose.

• The church of St. James at Compostela, with nine towers and an axial chapel, continues to function as a major pilgrim shrine, attracting devoted travelers seeking a holy experience.

 

IX: The Order Of Cluny

The Order of Cluny was founded in 910 when Duke William of Aquitaine established a monastery at Cluny, seeking atonement and divine favor. The monastery, exempt from local bishops' jurisdiction and directly responsible to the pope, attracted more monks and donations, growing into an influential organization with numerous abbeys and priories across Europe. The Cluny III church, built around 1088, was a masterpiece of mature Romanesque architecture. Enriched with double transepts and radiating chapels, it was the largest and most splendid church in Christendom. The church showcased a broken barrel vault and pointed arches, offering excellent acoustics for the monks' elaborate services. Sculptural decorations, although partially damaged, reflected the rich splendor of the heavenly kingdom. Cluny's artistic influence extended to its affiliated foundations, such as Ste. Madeleine at Vézelay and St. Lazare at Autun, which featured impressive sculptural work and depicted biblical stories and allegories.

 

IN POINTS :

• The Order of Cluny was founded in 910 at Cluny monastery by Duke William of Aquitaine to seek atonement and divine favor.

• The new monastery was exempted from the local bishop's jurisdiction and directly responsible to the pope, allowing it to grow into a significant religious organization with numerous abbeys and priories across Europe.

• Cluny III church, built around 1088, displayed mature Romanesque architecture and was the largest and most splendid in Christendom.

• The church featured a basilican plan with double transepts and radiating chapels around the apse and transept walls.

• The nave was 100 feet 30m high and 496 feet 151 m long, flanked by two aisles on each side, with an ambulatory linking the five radiating chapels.

• Cluny III utilized a broken barrel vault banded in each bay for structural reinforcement and excellent acoustics.

• Sculptural decorations, although partially damaged, adorned the church's interior, reflecting the splendor of the heavenly kingdom.

• Cluny's artistic influence extended to affiliated foundations, such as Ste. Madeleine at Vézelay and St. Lazare at Autun, with impressive sculptural work depicting biblical stories and allegories.

 

X : Aquitaine And Province

In present-day France, various regional variants of Romanesque architecture developed due to limited communication and dispersed political control. Aquitaine, located south of the Loire, was a significant region with diverse influences, including Byzantine elements seen in its churches with domes and pendentives. The church of St. Front at Périgueux resembled S. Marco in Venice, both having Greek-cross plans with domes on pendentives. Other domed churches in Aquitaine, like the cathedral of St. Pierre at Angoulême, featured domes replacing nave vaulting. Some churches, like the abbey church of St. Savin-sur-Gartempe, showcased fine examples of vaulted structures and exceptional Romanesque mural paintings known as the Bible of St. Savin.

In Provence, which remained close to Italy and had a strong Roman influence, Romanesque architecture exhibited classical elements. The Cluniac priory church of St. Gilles-du-Gard had a triple-arched west façade inspired by Roman triumphal arches, with accurately proportioned Corinthian columns. The former cathedral of St. Trophime at Arles also featured a façade reminiscent of Roman construction with classical sculpture in a dignified setting.

IN POINTS :

• Various regional variants of Romanesque architecture existed in present-day France due to limited communication and dispersed political control.

• Aquitaine, south of the Loire, had a flourishing culture and was open to varied influences, including Byzantine elements, evident in its churches with domes and pendentives.

• The church of St. Front at Périgueux resembled S. Marco in Venice with a Greek-cross plan and domes on pendentives.

• Other domed churches in Aquitaine, like St. Pierre at Angoulême, had domes replacing nave vaulting and featured a stately processional space.

• The abbey church of St. Savin-sur-Gartempe had vaulted structures with a continuous barrel vault over the nave and groin vaults in the aisles.

• The interior of St. Savin was adorned with a notable series of Romanesque frescoes, known as the Bible of St. Savin, representing the finest surviving example of its kind.

• In the region of Provence, Romanesque architecture exhibited strong Roman influences, particularly in the Cluniac priory church of St. Gilles-du-Gard with its triple-arched west façade and incorporated Corinthian columns.

• The former cathedral of St. Trophime at Arles featured a façade reminiscent of Roman construction with classical sculptures in a dignified setting.

 

XI : Cistercian Monasteries

The Cistercians were a monastic group founded in the 11th century, known for their strict adherence to the Benedictine Rule and simplicity in their architecture. They emphasized plain and durable construction, avoiding luxurious features and expensive materials. Their monasteries followed a uniform plan based on a square module, creating a recognizable international style.
Fontenay in Burgundy is a well-preserved example of their architectural ideals. The Cistercians selected remote locations for their monasteries, focusing on agriculture and self-sufficiency. Lay brothers handled manual labor, allowing monks to concentrate on prayer and manuscript copying. Initially successful, they later became wealthy and less strict in their observances. Nevertheless, their architecture spread sound building practices and the Romanesque style across Europe, becoming the first international style of the medieval period.

IN POINTS :

• The Cistercians were a monastic group founded in the 11th century.

• They originated in Burgundy, France, and aimed to follow a stricter observance of the Benedictine Rule.

• Their first monastery was at Citeaux, and they were named after it.

• Saint Bernard of Clairvaux played a significant role in shaping and guiding the Cistercian Order.

• They emphasized simplicity in their architecture and avoided luxurious features.

• Cistercian monasteries had straightforward, orderly plans based on a square module.

• Their buildings lacked towers, stained-glass windows, and paved floors..

• The Cistercians focused on agricultural management and self-sufficiency.

• The Cistercians spread their monasteries throughout Western Christendom.

• Fontenay in Burgundy is a well-preserved example of Cistercian architecture.

• Their buildings had a plain and durable construction, following the principles of Saint Bernard.

• The Cistercians became successful and wealthy, but they also relaxed their strict observances.

• Despite this, they remained an influential religious and architectural presence across Europe.

• Cistercian architecture spread sound building practices and the Romanesque style throughout the continent.

• Their monasteries shared fundamental characteristics, creating the first international style of the medieval period.

XII: Norman Architecture

Norman architecture, characterized by its skilled stone construction and strong influence on the development of Gothic architecture, emerged as Vikings settled in western France, known as Normandy, and embraced Christianity. The Normans, led by Duke William, undertook significant building projects, such as the abbey church of St. Etienne at Caen, to atone for past actions and foster religious growth.

Initially featuring long wooden-roofed naves and groin vaults, St. Etienne later incorporated rib vaulting, demonstrating an early exploration of the structural advantages that would become synonymous with Gothic architecture. Additionally, Duke William's historic conquest of England in 1066 initiated an architectural transformation, as the Normans encouraged the construction of grand churches and cathedrals across England, incorporating elements of Norman design. Notably, Durham Cathedral in England showcased Norman rib vaulting and pointed arches, which laid the groundwork for the later Gothic style. The innovations of Norman builders paved the way for the emergence of spacious and light-filled structures that defined the architectural era to come.

IN POINTS :

• Vikings in Norway converted to Christianity and built stave churches.

• Some Vikings settled in western France, known as Normans, and developed into skilled builders in stone.

• Normans encouraged the construction of monasteries and churches, like the abbey church of St. Etienne at Caen.

• The church initially had a long nave with wooden roofs and groin vaults.

• Later, the wooden roof was replaced with rib vaulting, engaging major and minor supports for a continuous line.

• Duke William also led the Norman Conquest of England in 1066, leading to significant architectural developments.

• William reorganized the English church and built churches and castles, encouraging monasteries and great cathedrals.

• Durham Cathedral in England, built under Norman bishops, was an impressive example of Norman architecture with rib vaulting.

• The use of rib vaults and pointed arches by Norman builders led to structural innovations associated with the Gothic style.

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