I : Etruscan Civilization 

 

1. - The Etruscans, settlers of north-central Italy during the first millennium BCE, Their origins are not fully understood, but they are believed to have migrated from Asia Minor after the collapse of Hittite power.

2. - They used omens from animal entrails, similar to Babylonian and Assyrian practices.

3.  -Etruscan architecture featured the use of the arch and vault, indicating connections with Asia Minor.

4. - Their unique accomplishments left a distinctive imprint on Roman civilization.

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II : Roman Architecture

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During the first and second centuries CE, Roman civilization experienced a period of unprecedented growth and reached its zenith in terms of influence and significance. While influenced by Etruscan and Greek cultures, Roman architecture possessed its own distinct elements. Romans distinguished themselves as practical builders, constructing enduring infrastructure such as roads, bridges, aqueducts, and sewer systems. The application of decorative orders, including Corinthian and Composite, adorned their temples and public structures.

 

Roman innovation extended to interior spaces, with the introduction of underfloor heating and public baths, showcasing their focus on comfort and functionality. To cater to a range of spectacles and events, Romans pioneered the construction of amphitheaters and stadiums for athletic competitions, gladiatorial contests, and grand pageants.

 

The principles and concepts of Roman design were extensively documented in “The Ten Books of Architecture” by Vitruvius. Today, the lasting impact of Roman architecture endures, with numerous surviving structures bearing testament to their skill and artistry.

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IN POINTS :

• . Roman civilization grew in importance and reached its peak in the first and second centuries CE.

• . Roman architecture was influenced by Etruscan and Greek cultures but had original elements.

• . Romans were practical builders, constructing durable roads, bridges, aqueducts, and sewer systems.

• . They used decorative orders, such as Corinthian and Composite, on temples and public structures.

• . Romans created impressive interior spaces and introduced underfloor heating and public baths.

• . They developed amphitheaters and stadiums for athletic events, gladiatorial contests, and pageants.

• . The principles of Roman design can be found in the book “The Ten Books of Architecture“ by Vitruvius.

• . Roman architecture still exists today, showcasing their skill and lasting impact.

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III : Building Techniques And Materials:

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Roman construction showcased ingenious engineering skills, utilizing compression structures like arches, vaults, and domes. Arches were formed with wedge-shaped stones called voussoirs, supported by temporary timber formwork.

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Thicker walls countered the thrust of vaulted construction. Aqueducts, such as the Aqua Appia and Aqua Claudia, used arched structures to traverse valleys, exemplified by the awe-inspiring Pont du Gard. Barrel vaults appeared in the Temple of Diana, while Roman concrete, mixed with pozzolana, revolutionized building materials.

 

IN POINTS :

• Roman construction employed engineering skills to tackle everyday problems.

• Compression structures such as the arch, vault, and dome were key elements of Roman construction.

• True arches consisted of wedge-shaped stones called voussoirs set in a curved shape.

• Temporary timber formwork, known as centering, was used to support the voussoirs during construction.

• Vaulted construction required thicker walls or piers to counteract the thrust caused by the weight of the masonry.

• Roman aqueducts were built to bring clean water to Rome, using arched structures to cross valleys.

• The Aqua Appia and Aqua Claudia were notable aqueducts constructed by the Romans.

• The Pont du Gard in Nimes, France, is a remarkable aqueduct span with three tiers of arches.

• Barrel vaults were used in the Temple of Diana in Nimes and later revived in Romanesque churches.

• Roman builders utilized hydraulic cement, known as pozzolana, mixed with lime, rubble, and water to create a stone-like material.

• Concrete became a popular building material due to its strength, durability, and economy.

• Roman concrete walls evolved from rough stones surrounded by a concrete core to refined techniques using squared stones or bricks as facing and aggregate.

• Different techniques such as opus incertum ( walls made of rough stones surrounding a concrete core), opus reticulatum (same technique refined to squared stones), and opus testaceum (use of bricks as the concrete facing ) .were employed in concrete construction.

• Roman vaulted construction initially focused on utilitarian structures like the Cloaca Maxima, a drainage system for the Roman marshes.

•  Aqueducts were designed to follow the contour of the land, but elevated arch structures were necessary to cross valleys while maintaining a constant slope.

• The Pont du Gard in Nimes is an impressive aqueduct span with three tiers of arches, reaching a height of over 100 feet. around 30 meters.

• The Temple of Diana in Nimes utilized barrel vaults to cover interior space and featured blind windows for interior wall articulation.

• Concrete construction allowed for flexibility in achieving curves and irregular shapes, but nonstructural finishes like stucco, mosaic, and marble veneer were used to enhance aesthetics.

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IV : City Planning:

Pompeii, originally a Greek city later incorporated into the Roman Empire, met its fate in 79 CE when Mount Vesuvius erupted, preserving the city and revealing its diverse population. Greek and Roman city planning shared similarities, with orthogonal layouts in colonial cities. Pompeii’s streets adapted to the terrain, hosting public facilities dispersed throughout the town, while the Forum served as the center of civic life.

The city of Timgad followed a standardized Roman plan, featuring main roads (decumanus and the cardo) intersecting at right angles. Triumphal arches were common in Pompeii and Timgad, commemorating military victories. Religious diversity was evident in Greek and Roman city planning, with numerous temples dedicated to various deities. Standardized approaches, colonnades, and the incorporation of utilitarian and monumental elements defined Roman city planning, leaving a lasting impact on urban development.

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IN POINTS :

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• Pompeii, a Roman city, was founded by the Greeks and later became a Roman city before being destroyed and preserved by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE.

• Pompeii had a diverse population including patrician families, merchants, retired individuals, and slaves, and its urban layout covered approximately 160 acres – 64,7497 hectares within town walls.

• City planning in ancient Greece and Rome showed similarities. While Athens and Rome grew without preconceived overall plans, colonial cities established by both civilizations often had orthogonal (right-angled) plans.

• Streets in Pompeii ran approximately parallel and perpendicular to the forum (central square), adapting to the varying topography. Public facilities like baths, exercise facilities, theaters, and temples were dispersed throughout the town.

• The Forum in Pompeii served as the center of public life. It had a rectangular shape measuring approximately 155 by 38 meters. Surrounding three sides of the forum was a two-story colonnade, while the open fourth side contained the Capitolium, a center for religious observances.

• The city of Timgad, founded by Trajan in 100 CE, followed a standard Roman plan. It had a rectangular shape with two main roads, the cardo and the decumanus, crossing at right angles in the center. The city walls enclosed the square, and the forum was located to the south.

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• In Rome, the Forum Romanum was the focus of civic life. Over time, it expanded with the construction of new colonnaded forums adjacent to the existing area. Trajan’s Forum, designed by Apollodorus of Damascus, was the largest and most symmetrical Forum. It featured a monumental entrance, a court surrounded by double colonnades and semicircular elements, the Basilica Ulpia, Trajan’s Column, and library buildings.

• Triumphal arches were common in both Pompeii and Timgad. These freestanding monuments commemorated military victories and added grandeur to the public realm. Examples in Rome include the Arch of Septimus Severus and the larger Arch of Constantine, both featuring triple-arched structures with relief panels depicting military victories.

• Greek and Roman city planning often incorporated religious diversity. In Pompeii, for example, there were nine temples dedicated to various gods, representing Greek divinities, Roman deities, deceased Roman emperors, patrons of the city, and oriental mystery cults of Isis and Bacchus. This reflects the range of religious beliefs and practices in the ancient world.

• Roman city planning had a standardized approach, particularly in military garrisons and colonial cities. The rectangular or square layout with two main roads intersecting at right angles (cardo and decumanus) provided a clear and organized structure for urban development. This planning style was consistent across the Roman Empire, from Britain to North Africa and the eastern Mediterranean.

• The use of colonnades was a notable architectural feature in Roman city planning. Colonnades were often used to link buildings and create a sense of architectural consistency. They provided sheltered walkways and added aesthetic appeal to the streetscapes. The colonnaded streets in Pompeii and Timgad are examples of this design approach.

• Roman city planning showcased a balance between utilitarianism and monumentality. While providing practical spaces for civic functions like markets, baths, and theaters, the Romans also incorporated grand architectural elements, such as impressive basilicas, temples, and columned courtyards, to create visually stunning urban environments.

 

V : Temples

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Roman temples were influenced by Greek and Etruscan architecture and were integrated into urban settings. They often featured raised podiums with colonnaded porticos, and smaller surviving temples provide valuable insights into their design. Some Roman temples expanded their interior space while maintaining axiality, and circular ground plans were also incorporated.

 

The Pantheon in Rome, with its dome-on-drum design, stands out as a significant example of a circular-plan temple dedicated to planetary deities. Its dome construction utilized arches, vaults, hidden relieving arches, and chambers for structural support. The Pantheon’s visual division into two stories, square coffers on the dome, and an oculus for light and air are distinctive features. Its influence can be seen in subsequent domed buildings. The Temple of Venus at Baalbek is another notable circular-plan Roman temple, characterized by a shallow stone dome and theatrical qualities.

 

IN POINTS :

• Roman temples were influenced by Greek and Etruscan precedents.

• Unlike Greek temples, Roman temples were not isolated structures but part of an urban setting.

• The placement and design of Roman temples, such as the Capitolium and the Temple of Mars Ultor, were similar and raised on podiums with colonnaded porticos.

• Smaller Roman temples that have survived provide a better understanding of temple architecture.

• Some Roman temples, like the Temple of Fortuna Virilis and Maison Carree, expanded the cella to provide a larger interior space and maintained axiality.

• Roman temples also incorporated circular ground plans, such as the Temple of the Sibyl and the Temple of Vesta.

• The Pantheon in Rome is considered the most influential circular-plan Roman temple, with a dome-on-drum design and a large interior space dedicated to planetary deities.

• The Pantheon’s dome construction is based on arches and vaults, with hidden relieving arches and chambers to distribute the structural load.

• The Pantheon’s cylindrical cella wall is visually divided into two stories, with a ground-level Corinthian order and an attic story with rectangular openings.

• The Pantheon’s dome features five tiers of diminishing square coffers for articulation and an oculus for light and air.

• The Pantheon’s influence can be seen in numerous domed buildings constructed since Roman times. or in subsequent movements 

 

Numeric Facts :

• The concrete foundations supporting the Pantheon’s dome were 15 feet thick, which is approximately 4.6 meters.

• The width of the concrete foundations for the Pantheon’s dome was 34 feet, approximately 10.4 meters.

• The drum walls of the Pantheon, supporting the dome and distributing the structural load, were up to 20 feet deep, approximately 6.1 meters.

• Cella space: 142 feet and six inches diameter = approximately 43.5 meters, 142 feet high = approximately 43.5 meters

• Oculus: 27 feet diameter = approximately 8.2 meters

 

VI : Basilicas

The Romans developed various specialized public buildings, such as basilicas, baths, and theaters. Basilicas served as assembly halls and the oldest known Roman basilica is the one in Pompeii, featuring colonnades, a central nave, and luxurious materials. The Basilica Nova in Rome, also known as the Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine, was a grand structure with three groin vaults, creating a dynamically complex space.

 

IN POINTS :

 

•  The Romans developed public buildings with specialized functions, including basilicas, baths, and theaters.

• Basilicas were large assembly halls used for law courts. The basilica at Pompeii, dating back to around 100 BCE, is the oldest known Roman basilica. It had colonnades defining interior aisles and enclosing a central space or nave. Luxurious materials were used in its construction.

• The Basilica Nova in Rome, also known as the Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine, was a grand basilica with three groin vaults over its nave, creating a spatial unit with dynamic complexity.

 

VI: Baths

The Baths of Diocletian in Rome, covering approximately 20.23 hectares of land, were the largest bath complex of their time and accommodated 3000 people. They featured a symmetrical design and various bath chambers, including the hot bath (caldarium) and the cool bath (frigidarium). The grandeur of the Baths is reflected in their highly elaborate interior, adorned with statues, marble veneers, mosaics, and landscaped grounds. Some parts of the Baths, such as the converted Church of S. Maria degli Angeli and the Church of S. Bernardo, have been preserved, while remnants of the exedra can be found in Piazza dell’Esedra. These impressive structures exemplify the splendor and magnificence of the Roman Empire.

 

IN POINTS :

• Roman baths, called thermae, were hygienic facilities that also provided exercise, relaxation, and socializing. They had multiple spaces for various activities, including changing rooms, baths of different temperatures, exercise facilities, and gardens.

• The Baths of Diocletian in Rome were the largest bath complex, covering about 50 acres (approximately 20.23 hectares) of land and accommodating 3000 people. They had symmetrical design and different bath chambers, including the hot bath (caldarium) and the cool bath (frigidarium).

• The interior of the Basilica Nova owed much to the vaulted Roman buildings, particularly the baths. The Baths of Diocletian were highly elaborate and included statues, marble veneers, mosaics, and landscaped grounds.

• Parts of the Baths of Diocletian have been preserved, including the converted Church of S. Maria degli Angeli. Some rooms were transformed into the Church of S. Bernardo, and remnants of the exedra can be found in Piazza dell’Bsedra.

• The Baths of Diocletian were exceptionally large compared to other ancient Roman baths, reflecting the grandeur of imperial times.

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VI : Theatres And Amphitheatres

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Greek and Roman cultures valued athletic competitions and dramatic performances. The Romans built theaters and amphitheaters using vaulted structures, while Greek theaters were carved into hillsides. The Theater of Marcellus in Rome featured three tiers of seating and a rectangular stage building. Amphitheaters, like the one in Pompeii, were circular or oval in shape with rising seating. The Colosseum, the largest amphitheater in Rome, held approximately 50,000 people and showcased Roman engineering. Over time, the Colosseum became associated with brutal entertainment, but its construction remains a testament to Roman skill.

 

IN POINTS :

• Athletic competitions and dramatic performances were important in ancient Greek and Roman culture.

• Greek theaters and stadiums were carved into hillsides, while Roman facilities were constructed regardless of terrain, using vaulted structures for spectator seating.

• The Theater of Marcellus in Rome was a semicircular theater with three tiers of seating and a rectangular stage building as the backdrop.

• The theater featured stacked radial barrel vaults and engaged half-columns and entablatures of the Doric and Ionic orders.

• The design of theaters influenced the development of amphitheaters, which were circular or oval in shape with raked seating on all sides.

• The amphitheater in Pompeii was one of the oldest surviving examples and had seats supported on rising ground.

• Later amphitheaters like those in Arles and Nimes were built mostly above ground level.

• The Colosseum, also known as the Flavian Amphitheater, was the largest amphitheater in Rome, with a capacity for approximately 50,000 people.

• The Colosseum was mainly made of masonry, combining cut stone and concrete, and featured a network of structural supports, passageways, ramps, and stairs.

• Its exterior was clad in cream-colored marble, and it had stacked half-columns in the Roman Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders.

• The Colosseum had an oval arena under the floor with passageways and chambers for gladiators, beasts, and machinery.

• The Colosseum became associated with brutal entertainment, including gladiator fights and persecution of Roman Christians.

• Over time, the Colosseum’s marble was removed for other purposes, but it remains as a testament to Roman construction skill.

 

VII: Residences 

Pompeii offers a detailed glimpse into various types of Roman housing, from simple homes to grand town residences, rural villas, and farmhouses. Initially, the earliest houses in Pompeii followed a native Italian architectural style, where the main rooms were directly linked to an open courtyard. This courtyard served as both an entrance to the house and a source of natural light and airflow. Notably, these houses featured a front-facing wall that directly faced the street without any setback from the sidewalk.

 

IN POINTS :

• Pompeii provides a comprehensive record of Roman housing, including ordinary dwellings, elaborate town residences, country villas, and farmhouses.

• The earliest houses in Pompeii followed an indigenous Italian building type where the main rooms of the house were directly connected to an open courtyard.

• The courtyard served as access to the house and provided light and circulation of air.

• The front of these houses faced the street with a blank wall, without any setback from the sidewalk.

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VIII :Urban Housing

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The House of the Surgeon in Pompeii is the oldest dwelling found there, featuring typical atrium house characteristics. It occupies the entire plot, with an atrium, bedrooms, and a main reception room. The house has a walled garden, service spaces, and a kitchen in the back. Rooms rely on the atrium or garden for light. The House of the Surgeon also includes a separate shop.

 

The House of Pansa is another notable Pompeii house, lacking windows on all sides and depending on the atrium, peristyle court, and garden for light and air. Later modifications created smaller houses within it, some opening directly to the street. Pompeii houses were constructed using stone, brick, and timber, with less affluent homes having wooden frames filled with rubble or brick. The city's growth led to multi-story buildings and the conversion of older houses into apartments.

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IN POINTS :

The house of the surgeon:

• The House of the Surgeon in Pompeii is the oldest dwelling found there and represents the typical features of atrium houses.

• The house is an irregular quadrilateral that fills the plot of land on which it was built.

• It has three doors on the street side, with two providing access to shops and one serving as the main entry to the house.

• The house features an atrium with a roof, except for a small central area left open to the sky. Water from the roof falls into a basin in the center of the atrium.

• The bedrooms are located on either side of the atrium, while the main reception room (tablinum) is straight ahead on the axis.

• The house includes a portico that opens onto a walled garden, with service spaces and the kitchen in the wings or back rooms.

• The rooms in the house depend on the atrium or garden for light, as the exterior walls have no openings.

• The House of the Surgeon had a separate shop connected to the interior, allowing the owner to conduct business independently of domestic activity.

• Wealthier citizens in the second century BCE constructed expanded atrium houses with multiple atriums and larger gardens surrounded by colonnades.

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The house of Pansa

• The House of Pansa in Pompeii is an example of an atrium-peristyle house with no windows on its four sides, relying on the atrium, peristyle court, and garden for light and air.

• Smaller houses were created within the House of Pansa in later remodeling, lacking an atrium or internal court and opening directly to the street.

• Streets in Pompeii were narrow, with raised walks on either side and stepping stones at intersections for pedestrians and carts.

• Houses in Pompeii were primarily constructed using stone and brick, with timber used for roof beams.

• Less affluent houses had wooden structural frames filled with rubble or brick, similar to half-timbering construction.   

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• Multi-story constructions:

• Construction became multi-story as the city grew, with older houses converted into apartments.

• After the fire that destroyed much of Rome in 64 CE, apartment blocks or insulae became the dominant housing type in cities.

• Insulae in Ostia, a port city, was up to six floors high and had central courtyards, with ground-floor street frontages used for shops.

• Unlike atrium houses, upper-floor walls of insulae had windows opening to the street, allowing rooms to draw light and air from both the courtyard and the street.

• Middle-class district windows in insulae had glass panes to prevent air filtration.

 

 XI : Rural Villas And Urban Palaces

The Villa of the Mysteries in Pompeii is a country residence that evolved over 300 years, showcasing its connection with the surrounding countryside. The Palace of Domitian in Rome was an elaborate palace for the emperor, while Hadrian’s Villa near Tivoli was a vast complex with diverse architectural influences. It served various purposes and featured notable elements such as the East-West Terrace, Island Enclosure, Scenic Canal, and Water Court. Roman architecture, known for its curves, has had a lasting impact on architectural styles throughout history.

IN POINTS :

• The Villa of the Mysteries in Pompeii is an example of a country residence, gradually growing over 300 years.

• The Villa of the Mysteries shows a shift towards the importance of exterior elevations and connection with the surrounding countryside.

• The Palace of Domitian in Rome was an elaborate palace for the emperor, featuring official rooms and a private residence section.

• Hadrian’s Villa outside Tivoli was a vast and sprawling complex with geometrically controlled building groups.

• Hadrian’s Villa incorporated varied interior volumes, exterior vistas, and architectural forms from different parts of the world.

• The villa served as a place for work, relaxation, entertainment, and intellectual pursuits.

• The villa had an East-West Terrace with a rectangular fish pond, an Island Enclosure for meditation or intimate meetings, and a Scenic Canal with a grand banqueting hall.

• The Water Court featured a square courtyard with an octagonal domed entrance pavilion and a Nymphaeum with fountains.

• Roman architecture, including the use of curves, has influenced later architectural styles from the Renaissance to the 20th century.

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